Yttrium chloride

Target of Action

Yttrium(III) chloride, also known as Yttrium chloride(III), is an inorganic compound of yttrium and chloride . It is used as a precursor to synthesize yttrium-based nanomaterials such as yttrium aluminum garnet nanopowder and organometallic yttrium complexes . These materials find application in the field of catalysis, electroluminescent devices, and superconductors . Therefore, the primary targets of Yttrium(III) chloride are these yttrium-based nanomaterials and their associated applications.

Mode of Action

Yttrium(III) chloride reacts with potassium alkoxotitanates to form precursors for titanium-containing ceramics . It is also used in the production of yttrium alkyl alkoxide complexes . The compound interacts with its targets through chemical reactions, leading to the formation of new compounds with desired properties.

Biochemical Pathways

It is known to be involved in the synthesis of yttrium-based nanomaterials and organometallic yttrium complexes , which can have various downstream effects depending on their specific applications.

Pharmacokinetics

It has been documented that most of the yttrium administered was distributed into liver, bone, and spleen . Yttrium disappeared from the blood within 1 day but was retained in the organs for a long time . These findings suggest that Yttrium(III) chloride may have low bioavailability due to its rapid clearance from the blood and long retention in the organs.

Result of Action

The molecular and cellular effects of Yttrium(III) chloride’s action largely depend on its application. For instance, when used as a precursor to synthesize yttrium-based nanomaterials, the result of its action is the formation of these nanomaterials with desired properties .

Action Environment

The action, efficacy, and stability of Yttrium(III) chloride can be influenced by various environmental factors. For example, its solubility in water and other solvents can affect its availability for reactions . Moreover, its reactivity with other substances can be influenced by factors such as temperature and pH.

Biochemical Properties

The biological effects of Yttrium refer to the activity, behavior, and toxicity of Yttrium element or compounds in cells, tissues, organs, and organisms . Yttrium is present in low abundance in soil, water bodies, and organisms . It is not an essential element for organisms and its bioavailability is very low .

Cellular Effects

Yttrium(III) chloride has been found to have acute hepatic injury and transient increase of plasma Ca following the injection . A significant and tremendous amount of Ca was deposited in the liver (over 10-fold) and spleen (over 100-fold), while Ca concentration was only slightly increased in the lung and kidney (less than 1.5-fold) . These results indicate that liver and spleen are primary target organs of intravenous-injected Yttrium(III) chloride .

Molecular Mechanism

Yttrium(III) chloride is taken up by phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen . Electron microscopic analyzes revealed that the colloidal yttrium-containing material was taken up by phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen .

Temporal Effects in Laboratory Settings

The elimination half-time of liver Y was 144 days at a dose of 1 mg Y/rat . Yttrium disappeared from the blood within 1 day but was retained in the organs for a long time .

Dosage Effects in Animal Models

The acute toxicity of Yttrium ion (Y3+), the deposition, retention, metabolism, and clearance have been documented in the previous reports . Hirano et al. studied time-course and dose-related changes in tissue distribution, subcellular localization, clearance, and acute toxicity of intravenous-injected Yttrium(III) chloride in rats .

Metabolic Pathways

Changes in Ca concentrations in liver, spleen, and lungs were in accordance with those of Yttrium(III) chloride . Two mechanisms of REE metabolism in the case of intravenous administration are suggested: (1) The REEs may be transported partly contained in serum protein and partly incorporated into phagocytes, and taken mostly into the reticuloendothelial system by the phagocytic mechanism and deposited there. (2) The major route of excretion of REEs may be biliary excretion and the REEs might be excreted gradually into feces .

Transport and Distribution

Yttrium(III) chloride is transported and distributed within cells and tissues . It is taken up by phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen .

Subcellular Localization

The subcellular localization of Yttrium(III) chloride is within the phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen . Electron microscopic analyzes revealed that the colloidal yttrium-containing material was taken up by phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen .

Yttrium chloride is often prepared by the “ammonium chloride route,” starting from either yttrium oxide (Y₂O₃) or hydrated chloride or oxychloride . The synthetic route involves the following reactions:

From Y₂O₃: [ 10 \text{NH}_4\text{Cl} + \text{Y}_2\text{O}_3 \rightarrow 2 (\text{NH}_4)_2[\text{YCl}_5] + 6 \text{NH}_3 + 3 \text{H}_2\text{O} ]

From YCl₃·6H₂O: [ \text{YCl}_3·6\text{H}_2\text{O} + 2 \text{NH}_4\text{Cl} \rightarrow (\text{NH}_4)_2[\text{YCl}_5] + 6 \text{H}_2\text{O} ]

The pentachloride decomposes thermally to yield this compound(III): [ (\text{NH}_4)_2[\text{YCl}_5] \rightarrow 2 \text{NH}_4\text{Cl} + \text{YCl}_3 ]

Yttrium chloride undergoes various types of chemical reactions, including:

Oxidation: this compound can be oxidized to form yttrium oxychloride (YClO).

Reduction: It can be reduced to elemental yttrium using strong reducing agents.

Substitution: This compound reacts with potassium alkoxotitanates to form precursors for titanium-containing ceramics.

Common reagents and conditions used in these reactions include ammonium chloride, potassium alkoxotitanates, and high temperatures. Major products formed from these reactions include yttrium oxychloride and yttrium alkyl alkoxide complexes.

Materials Science

Yttrium Chloride in Ceramics and Superconductors
this compound is crucial in the synthesis of yttrium-based ceramics and superconductors. It serves as a precursor for materials like Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBCO), which is renowned for its high-temperature superconducting properties.

Phosphor Production

This compound is integral to the manufacturing of phosphors used in light-emitting diode (LED) technologies and display systems. Its ability to enhance brightness and energy efficiency makes it a preferred choice in the electronics industry.

Catalysis

In organic synthesis, this compound acts as a catalyst to improve reaction rates and selectivity. Its application in catalysis is vital for developing more efficient chemical processes.

Biomedical Applications

This compound has emerging applications in biomedicine, particularly in targeted drug delivery systems and as a contrast agent in medical imaging. Its unique properties allow for clearer imaging results, which are crucial for diagnostics.

Nuclear Medicine

Yttrium-90 chloride, a radioisotope derived from this compound, plays a critical role in radioimmunotherapy for cancer treatment. It allows for targeted radiation therapy that minimizes damage to surrounding healthy tissues.

Case Study 1: this compound in Superconductors

Research has demonstrated that YBCO synthesized using this compound exhibits superior performance at elevated temperatures compared to traditional superconductors. This advancement has implications for power grids and magnetic resonance imaging technologies .

Case Study 2: Cytotoxicity Studies

A study investigating the cytotoxic effects of this compound on cardiomyocytes revealed that exposure can lead to DNA damage via reactive oxygen species overproduction . This finding underscores the importance of understanding the biological impacts of yttrium compounds as they are increasingly used in medical applications.

Yttrium chloride can be compared with other similar compounds, such as:

• Yttrium fluoride(III) (YF₃)
• Yttrium bromide(III) (YBr₃)
• Yttrium iodide(III) (YI₃)
• Scandium chloride(III) (ScCl₃)
• Lutetium chloride(III) (LuCl₃)

This compound is unique due to its high solubility in water and its ability to form various yttrium-based materials. Its layered crystal structure, shared by compounds like aluminum chloride (AlCl₃), also contributes to its distinct properties .

Yttrium chloride (YCl₃) is a compound of yttrium, a rare earth element, that has garnered attention for its biological activity, particularly its effects on cellular processes and potential applications in medical treatments. This article synthesizes findings from various studies to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological activity of this compound, including its mechanisms of action, cytotoxicity, and implications for health.

Recent research has highlighted the cytotoxic effects of YCl₃ on various cell types. A significant study demonstrated that long-term exposure to YCl₃ induces apoptosis in Leydig cells, which are crucial for testosterone production in the testes. The mechanism involves the upregulation of the Ca²⁺/IP₃R₁/CaMKII signaling pathway, leading to increased intracellular calcium levels and activation of apoptotic pathways .

Key Findings:

• Cell Apoptosis : YCl₃ treatment resulted in increased expression of cleaved caspase-3 and decreased Bcl-2 levels, indicating a shift towards apoptosis in Leydig cells .
• Calcium Signaling : The compound enhances cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentrations, which is crucial for activating apoptotic signals .

Cytotoxicity Studies

This compound's cytotoxicity has been evaluated in various models, revealing significant effects on cell viability:

In a study focusing on breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231), YCl₃ exhibited selective cytotoxic effects, primarily through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to DNA damage and apoptosis .

Case Studies

• Reproductive Toxicity : In an animal model, chronic exposure to YCl₃ resulted in significant testicular damage characterized by cellular apoptosis and alterations in hormone production. This was associated with upregulation of apoptotic markers and disruption of normal Leydig cell function .
• Hepatic Effects : Another study noted that intravenous administration of YCl₃ led to accumulation in the liver and spleen, causing transient increases in liver enzymes (AST and ALT), indicative of hepatic stress . The compound was found to form colloidal materials within phagocytic cells, impacting calcium metabolism significantly.

Implications for Medical Applications

This compound has been explored for its potential therapeutic applications, particularly in targeted therapies such as radioisotope treatment for cancer. The ability to accumulate selectively in certain tissues suggests that it could be utilized for localized treatment strategies while minimizing systemic toxicity.

Potential Applications:

• Cancer Treatment : Leveraging its cytotoxic properties against cancer cells while minimizing damage to normal tissues.
• Radiopharmaceuticals : As a carrier for radioactive isotopes, enhancing the efficacy of radiotherapy through targeted delivery.